1.11 Other Theories of Motivation★★★

# Same Salary, Different Effort

• Two people get the same salary. One works hard; one barely shows up.
• So money alone can't explain effort. What does?
• Fairness? Respect? A reward worth chasing? A job that feels meaningful?
• Each theory of motivation answers this question in its own way.

# Theories of Motivation PYQ 15M

Theories of motivation fall into two groups:

• Content theories explain what motivates people (their needs).
• Process theories explain how motivation works (the thinking behind effort).

• A well-balanced set of three: Maslow (→ 1.10), Herzberg and Vroom, covering needs, job factors and the thinking process.

# Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory PYQ 1M

Herzberg's two-factor theory (Frederick Herzberg, 1959), also called the hygiene theory or motivation–hygiene theory, says the factors that cause job satisfaction are different from those that cause dissatisfaction.

flowchart TD
    A["<b>Hygiene factors missing</b><br>low pay, poor conditions"]:::red --> B["<b>Dissatisfied</b>"]:::red
    B --> C["<b>Fix hygiene factors</b>"]:::amber
    C --> D["<b>Not dissatisfied</b><br>but not motivated"]:::amber
    D --> E["<b>Add motivators</b><br>recognition, growth"]:::blue
    E --> F["<b>Satisfied and motivated</b>"]:::green
    classDef blue fill:#5b84d424,stroke:#5b84d480
    classDef amber fill:#d6a24424,stroke:#d6a24480
    classDef red fill:#d0707024,stroke:#d0707080
    classDef green fill:#52a86e24,stroke:#52a86e80

• Example: a raise stops an employee complaining, but only challenging work and recognition make her give extra effort.
• Vs Maslow: hygiene factors ≈ Maslow's lower needs; motivators ≈ esteem and self-actualization.
• Limitation: based on a small sample of engineers and accountants; for many people pay does motivate.

# McClelland's Need Theory PYQ 1M

McClelland's need theory (David McClelland, 1961) says people are driven mainly by three learnt needs, and one of them is usually dominant.

1. Need for achievement (nAch): to excel, meet challenging goals, take moderate risks.
   • Example: the developer who wants to write the fastest code in the team.
2. Need for affiliation (nAff): to be liked and accepted; prefers cooperation.
   • Example: the team member who keeps everyone in harmony.
3. Need for power (nPow): to influence and control others.
   • Example: the person who wants to lead the project.

• Use: match people to roles: high nAch → challenging individual tasks; high nAff → team roles; high nPow → leadership.
• Limitation: needs are hard to measure; it was tested mainly in Western business settings.

# Adams' Equity Theory PYQ 5M

Equity theory (J. Stacy Adams, 1963) says people are motivated by fairness: they compare their own input–outcome ratio with that of others.

• Inputs: effort, time, skill, experience, loyalty.
• Outcomes: pay, bonus, recognition, promotion.
• Referent: the person or group one compares with.
• Comparison: my outcomes ÷ my inputs vs referent's outcomes ÷ referent's inputs

flowchart TD
    A["<b>My inputs and outcomes</b>"]:::blue --> B["<b>Compare with referent</b>"]:::blue
    B --> C{"Ratios equal?"}:::amber
    C -->|"Yes"| D["<b>Equity</b><br>satisfied, keeps effort"]:::green
    C -->|"No"| E["<b>Inequity</b><br>tension"]:::red
    E --> F["<b>Act to restore fairness</b>"]:::amber
    classDef blue fill:#5b84d424,stroke:#5b84d480
    classDef amber fill:#d6a24424,stroke:#d6a24480
    classDef red fill:#d0707024,stroke:#d0707080
    classDef green fill:#52a86e24,stroke:#52a86e80

Reactions to inequity

• Under-reward (I get less than others for the same input): reduce effort, ask for a raise, change the referent, or quit.
• Over-reward (I get more): feel guilty, work harder, or justify it.
• Example: two programmers do equal work; one learns the other earns ₹10,000 more. The underpaid one cuts effort or starts job-hunting.
• Limitation: people judge fairness differently, and choosing the referent is subjective.

# Vroom's Expectancy Theory PYQ 10M · other

Expectancy theory (Victor Vroom, 1964) says people put in effort when they believe effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to a reward, and the reward is valuable to them.

Motivation (M) = Expectancy (E) × Instrumentality (I) × Valence (V)

1. Expectancy: belief that effort → good performance. "If I study, will I score?"
2. Instrumentality: belief that performance → reward. "If I score, will I get placed?"
3. Valence: how much the person values the reward. "Do I want that job?"

• First-level outcomes: results of effort, i.e. performance (productivity, quality).
• Second-level outcomes: rewards that follow performance (pay, promotion, recognition).
• These four variables belong to expectancy theory, not "achievement motivation theory".

flowchart TD
    A["<b>Effort</b>"]:::blue -->|"Expectancy"| B["<b>Performance</b><br>first-level outcome"]:::amber
    B -->|"Instrumentality"| C["<b>Reward</b><br>second-level outcome"]:::amber
    C -->|"Valence"| D["<b>Personal goal</b><br>value to the person"]:::green
    classDef blue fill:#5b84d424,stroke:#5b84d480
    classDef amber fill:#d6a24424,stroke:#d6a24480
    classDef red fill:#d0707024,stroke:#d0707080
    classDef green fill:#52a86e24,stroke:#52a86e80

• Because it is a product, if any one factor is zero, motivation is zero.
• Example: a salesperson is offered a trip for top sales. If she believes the target is impossible (E = 0), or doubts the company will pay up (I = 0), or hates travelling (V = 0), she won't try.
• Limitation: assumes people calculate rationally; hard to measure the three values.

# McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor (1960) described two sets of assumptions managers hold about workers.

# Alderfer's ERG Theory

Clayton Alderfer (1969) compressed Maslow's five levels into three:

1. Existence: physical and safety needs.
2. Relatedness: social and outside-esteem needs.
3. Growth: inner esteem and self-actualization.

• Vs Maslow: several needs can work at once, the order is flexible, and the frustration–regression principle applies: if a higher need is blocked, a person falls back to a lower one (blocked from promotion → demands more pay).

# Job Design and Job Characteristics PYQ 9M · other

Job design is the process of deciding a job's tasks, methods and relationships so that it gets the work done and motivates the person doing it.

Approaches to job design

1. Job simplification: split work into small, simple tasks (efficient but boring).
2. Job rotation: move people between jobs to reduce monotony.
   • Example: a bank trainee rotates through cash, loans and customer service.
3. Job enlargement: add more tasks at the same level (horizontal).
   • Example: a tester also writes test documentation.
4. Job enrichment: add responsibility and control (vertical).
   • Example: a tester is allowed to decide release readiness.

Six job dimensions (Turner and Lawrence, 1965), the important characteristics of a job:

1. Variety: different tasks and skills.
2. Autonomy: freedom in how to do the work.
3. Required interaction: contact the job demands.
4. Optional interaction: chances to interact by choice.
5. Knowledge and skill required.
6. Responsibility.

Job characteristics model (Hackman and Oldham, 1975–76) narrowed these to five core dimensions:

flowchart TD
    A["<b>Core job dimensions</b><br>skill variety<br>task identity<br>task significance<br>autonomy · feedback"]:::blue --> B["<b>Psychological states</b><br>meaningfulness<br>responsibility<br>knowledge of results"]:::amber
    B --> C["<b>Outcomes</b><br>high motivation, performance<br>satisfaction, low turnover"]:::green
    classDef blue fill:#5b84d424,stroke:#5b84d480
    classDef amber fill:#d6a24424,stroke:#d6a24480
    classDef red fill:#d0707024,stroke:#d0707080
    classDef green fill:#52a86e24,stroke:#52a86e80

• Example: a developer who builds a whole feature (identity), used by thousands (significance), chooses her own approach (autonomy) and sees user metrics (feedback) stays highly motivated.

# Job Satisfaction and Job Involvement PYQ 10M · other

Job satisfaction is the positive feeling a person has about their job. Job involvement is the degree to which a person identifies with their job and sees performance as important to self-worth.

i) Outcomes of job satisfaction

• Better performance and quality · lower turnover · lower absenteeism · better customer service · fewer accidents · more cooperation · better mental and physical health.

ii) Satisfaction and productivity

• Satisfied workers tend to be more productive, but the link is moderate.
• It also works the other way: high performance brings rewards, which bring satisfaction.

iii) Satisfaction and turnover

• High job satisfaction reduces turnover but does not eliminate it; people still leave for better pay, family or career reasons.
• Low satisfaction strongly predicts quitting.

iv) Satisfaction and absenteeism

• Satisfied employees are absent less (an inverse relationship), but illness, transport and family needs also cause absence.